如果有人希望核对事实，或阅读更多资料，请参考下面的内容。如果是众所周知的或广为报道的事实(例如肝脏的功能)，我不会特意标注来源。总体而言，只有当论断很具体、存在争议，又或者有着别的重要之处，我才会标注出来源。

第一章　制造一个人要花多少钱

[1]　总的来说，根据皇家化学学会的计算：构建一个本尼迪克特·康伯巴奇的复制品所花成本的信息，来自Karen Ogilvie of the Royal Society of Chemistry, London。

[2] 我们只需要20个钴原子：Emsley, Nature's Building Blocks, p. 4.

[3] 我们现在知道，硒能制成两种重要的酶：同上，pp. 379-380.

[4]　你的肝脏会受到无可挽回的毒害：Scientific American, July 2015, p. 31.

[5]　2012年，美国电视网PBS在老牌科学节目《新星》(Nova)里：Hunting the Elements', Nova, 4 April 2012.

[6] 听好了，你每天眨眼14,000次：McNeill, Face, p. 27.

[7] 把你所有血管的长度加起来：West, Scale, p. 152.

[8] 如果你把体内所有的DNA搓成：Pollack, Signs of Life, p. 19.

[9] 200亿股DNA并排起来：同上。

[10] 它的化学名称长达189,819个字母：Ball, Stories of the Invisible, p. 48.

[11] 没人知道我们体内有多少种蛋白质：Challoner, Cell, p. 38.

[12] 所有人类共享99.9％的DNA：Nature, 26 June 2014, p. 463.

[13]　我的DNA和你的DNA有着300万～400万个不同之处：Arney,Herding Hemingway's Cats, p. 184.

[14]　一百来个只属于你的个人基因突变：New Scientist, 15 Sept. 2012,pp. 30-33.

[15]　有一种叫作“Alu元件”的特殊短序列：Mukherjee, Gene, p.322; Ben-Barak, Invisible Kingdom, p. 174.

[16] 每6名吸烟者中就有5名不会患上肺癌：Nature, 24 March 2011, p. S2.

[17]　每天，你会有1～5个细胞发生癌变：Samuel Cheshier, neurosurgeon and Stanford professor, quoted on Naked Scientist podcast, 21 March 2017.

[18]　我们的身体是一个37.2万亿个细胞构成的宇宙：‘An Estimation of the Number of Cells in the Human Body', Annals of Human Biology, Nov.-Dec.2013.

[19]　有数以千计(8000多种)的事情可以扼杀我们：New Yorker, 7 April 2014, pp. 38-39.

[20]　我们执行合成过程的每一环节：Hafer, Not-So-Intelligent Designer, p. 132.

第二章　皮肤：人体最大的器官

[1]　我们皮肤接缝的地方不会破裂：Jablonski interview, State College,Pa., 29 Feb. 2016.

[2]　我们大手大脚、漫不经心地挥霍着皮肤：Andrews, Life That Lives on Man, p. 31.

[3] 我们每个人，每年身后都会掉落下：同上，p. 166.

[4] “acne”一词的词源很不确定：Oxford English Dictionary.

[5]　它们可以检测到轻微的接触：Ackerman, Natural History of the Senses, p. 83.

[6] 你把铁锹插入碎石或沙土：Linden, Touch, p. 46.

[7]　很奇怪的是，我们没有任何湿润感受器：‘The Magic of Touch', The Uncommon Senses, BBC Radio 4, 27 March 2017.

[8] 女性手指的触觉敏感性远远高于男性：Linden, Touch, p. 73.

[9] 皮肤的颜色来自各种染料：Jablonski interview.

[10] 随着年龄的增长，它的生成会急剧放缓：Challoner, Cell, p. 170.

[11] 黑色素是一种绝佳的天然防晒品：Jablonski interview.

[12]　黑色素往往会对阳光做出长斑的反应：Jablonski, Living Color, p. 14.

[13] 晒伤的红色：Jablonski, Skin, p. 17.

[14] 晒伤的正式名称是红斑：Smith, Body, p. 410.

[15] 这个过程叫黄褐斑色素沉淀：Jablonski, Skin, p. 90.

[16]　全球有50％的人：Journal of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapeutics, April/June 2012; New Scientist, 9 Aug. 2014, pp. 34-37.

[17]　随着人们进化出更浅的肤色：University College London press release, ‘Natural Selection Has Altered the Appearance of Europeans over the Past 5000 Years', 11 March 2014.

[18] 皮肤颜色发生改变的时间周期更长：Jablonski, Living Color, p. 24.

[19] 南美洲原住民的肤色：Jablonski, Skin, p. 91.

[20]　更难以解释的是南部非洲的科伊桑人：‘Rapid Evolution of a Skin-Lightening Allele in Southern African KhoeSan', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 26 Dec. 2018.

[21]　一个“切达人”已经拥有了“深到近乎黑色的皮肤”：‘First Modern Britons Had “Dark to Black” Skin', Guardian,7 Feb. 2018.

[22]　用于进行分析的DNA分解得太厉害：New Scientist, 3 March 2018, p. 12.

[23] 我们其实跟猿类表亲们一样毛发丛生：Jablonski, Skin, p. 19.

[24] 我们估计有500万根毛发：Linden, Touch, p. 216.

[25]　能提供保暖、缓冲和伪装：It provides warmth, cushioning, and camouflage: ‘The Naked Truth', Scientific American, Feb. 2010.

[26]　哺乳动物有毛，使得毛发和皮肤之间增加了一层有用的绝缘空气：Ashcroft, Life at the Extremes, p. 157.

[27]　鸡皮疙瘩也能让哺乳动物的毛发直立：Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings, July 2012, p. 305.

[28]　但根据遗传学研究，黑暗色素沉着：‘Why Are Humans So Hairy?', New Scientist, 17 Oct. 2017.

[29]　因为它增加了头发表面和头皮之间的空间厚度：Jablonski interview.

[30]　人类似乎并没有信息素：‘Do Human Pheromones Actually Exist?', Science News, 7 March 2017.

[31] 次级毛发是为了展示之用：Bainbridge, Teenagers, pp. 44-45.

[32]　我们每个人一生会长出大约8米的头发：The Curious Cases of Rutherford and Fry, BBC Radio 4, 22 Aug. 2016.

[33]　该系统引入了“面部照片”(mugshot)的概念和做法：Cole, Suspect Identities, p. 49.

[34] 头一个确定指纹独特性：Smith, Body, p. 409.

[35] 它们有助于抓握：Linden, Touch, p. 37.

[36]　为什么我们长时间洗澡时手指会起皱：‘Why Do We Get Prune Fingers?', Smithsonian.com, 6 Aug. 2015.

[37]　这是一种叫作“皮纹病”的状况：‘Adermatoglyphia: The Genetic Disorder of People Born Without Fingerprints', Smithsonian, 14 Jan. 2014.

[38]　大多数四足动物靠喘气来冷却：Daniel E. Lieberman, ‘Human Locomotion and Heat Loss: An Evolutionary Perspective', Comprehensive Physiology 5, no. 1 (Jan. 2015).

[39] 我们大部分体毛的丧失：Jablonski, Living Color, p. 26.

[40] 一个体重70公斤的男子：Stark, Last Breath, pp. 283-285.

[41]　虽然盐只占汗液整体的一小部分：Ashcroft, Life at the Extremes, p. 139.

[42] 流汗是由肾上腺素的释放所激活的：同上，p. 122.

[43]　测谎检验就会测量情绪性出汗：Tallis, Kingdom of In?nite Space, p. 23.

[44] 促成汗味的两种化学物质：Bainbridge, Teenagers, p. 48.

[45] 你身上的细菌数量：Andrews, Life That Lives on Man, p. 11.

[46]　要让人的手达到安全清洁的状态：Gawande, Better, pp. 14-15; What Is the Right Way to Wash Your Hands?', Atlantic, 23 Jan. 2017.

[47]　一名志愿者身上居住着一种……微生物：National Geographic News, 14 Nov. 2012.

[48] 抗菌皂的问题在于：Blaser, Missing Microbes, p. 200.

[49]　它们和我们一起生活的时间很长：David Shultz, ‘What the Mites on Your Face Say About Where You Came From', Science, 14 Dec. 2015, www.sciencemag.org.

[50] 关于抓挠的研究表明：Linden, Touch, p. 185.

[51] 最令人发狂的一种瘙痒形式：同上，pp. 187-189.

[52]　我们每个人的头上都有10万～15万个毛囊：Andrews, Life That Lives on Man, pp. 38-39.

[53]　一种叫作二氢睾酮的激素：Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings, July 2012, p. 305.

[54]　考虑到我们有些人是多么容易脱发：Andrews, Life That Lives on Man, p. 42.

第三章　微生物：你和地球都是属于微生物的

[1] 要把氮利用起来：Ben-Barak, Invisible Kingdom, p. 58.

[2]　人类生成20种消化酶：Interview with Professor Christopher Gardner of Stanford University, Palo Alto, 29 Jan. 2018.

[3]　细菌的平均重量是一张美元纸币的万亿分之一：Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings, July 2014; West, Scale, p. 1.

[4] 但细菌可以在彼此之间交换基因：Crawford, Invisible Enemy, p. 14.

[5] 理论上，单个亲本细菌：Lane, Power, Sex, Suicide, p. 114.

[6]　三天之内，它的后代：Maddox, What Remains to Be Discovered, p. 170.

[7]　如果你把地球上所有的微生物放在一堆：Crawford, Invisible Enemy, p. 13.

[8]　很可能就有大约40,000种微生物：‘Learning About Who We Are', Nature, 14 June 2012; ‘Molecular-Phylogenetic Characterization of Microbial Community Imbalances in Human Inflammatory Bowel Diseases', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 15 Aug. 2007.

[9]　你的私人微生物总重：Blaser, Missing Microbes, p. 25; Ben-Barak, Invisible Kingdom, p. 13.

[10] 2016年，来自以色列和加拿大的研究人员：Nature, 8 June 2016.

[11]　微生物群落可能具有惊人的个体特异性：‘The Inside Story',Nature, 28 May 2008.

[12]　只有1415种微生物会引起人类疾病：Crawford, Invisible Enemy, pp. 15-16; Pasternak, Molecules Within Us, p. 143.

[13]　有必要记住，所有这些微生物在其历史和遗传方面几乎没有任何共同之处：‘The Microbes Within,' Nature, 25 Feb. 2015.

[14]　疱疹病毒已经延续了：‘They Reproduce, but They Don?t Eat, Breathe, or Excrete', London Review of Books, 9 March 2001.

[15]　如果你把一个病毒吹成网球大小：Ben-Barak, Invisible Kingdom, p. 4.

[16]　起初他称这种神秘因子为“传染活液”：Roossinck, Virus, p. 13.

[17] 病毒有数十万种：Economist, 24 June 2017, p. 76.

[18]　当普鲁克特发现……不免令人大感震惊：Zimmer, Planet of Viruses, pp. 42-44.

[19]　光是海洋病毒，如果将它们挨个摆放在一起：Crawford, Deadly Companions, p. 13.

[20]　毫无疑问，感冒在冬天比在夏天更常见：‘Cold Comfort', New Yorker, 11 March 2002, p. 42.

[21]　感冒不是单纯的一种疾病：‘Unraveling the Key to a Cold Virus's Effectiveness', New York Times, 8 Jan. 2015.

[22]　一项实验为一名志愿者的鼻孔安装了一种装置：‘Cold Comfort', p. 45.

[23]　在亚利桑那大学进行的一项类似研究中：Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings, Jan. 2017, p. 127.

[24]　在现实世界中，这种感染：‘Germs Thrive at Work, Too', Wall Street Journal, 30 Sept. 2014.

[25]　让微生物茁壮成长的地方是座椅的织物：Nature, 25 June 2015, p. 400.

[26]　数十年来都只存在于加拿大不列颠哥伦比亚省的隐球菌：Scientific American, Dec. 2013, p. 47.

[27]　一个有趣的例子：‘Giant Viruses', American Scientist, JulyAug. 2011; Zimmer, Planet of Viruses, pp. 89-91; ‘The Discovery and Characterization of Mimivirus, the Largest Known Virus and Putative Pneumonia Agent', Emerging Infections, 21 May 2007; ‘Ironmonger Who Found a Unique Colony', Daily Telegraph, 15 Oct. 2004; Bradford Telegraph and Argus, 15 Oct. 2014; ‘Out on a Limb’, Nature, 4 Aug. 2011.

[28]　他著名的同事马克斯·冯·佩滕科弗对此心存怀疑，强烈反对：Le Fanu, Rise and Fall of Modern Medicine, p. 179.

[29]　砷凡纳明仅对几种东西(主要是梅毒)有效：Journal of

Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 71 (2016).

[30] 牛津大学的首席研究员：Lax, Mould in Dr Florey's Coat, pp. 77-79.

[31]　他不像是个能做出任何重大科学发现的人：Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, s.v. ‘Chain, Sir Ernst Boris?.

[32]　到1941年初，他们终于有了足够的青霉素：Le Fanu, Rise and Fall of Modern Medicine, pp. 3-12; Economist, 21 May 2016, p. 19.

[33]　实验室助理玛丽·亨特：‘Penicillin Comes to Peoria', Historynet, 2 June 2014.

[34]　自那天以后，人们生产的每一丁点青霉素：Blaser, Missing Microbes, p. 60; ‘The Real Story Behind Penicillin', PBS NewsHour website, 27 Sept. 2013.

[35]　英国发现者们十分懊恼地发现：Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, s.v. ‘Florey, Howard Walter'.

[36]　尽管共同分享了诺贝尔奖，钱恩：Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, s.v. ‘Chain, Sir Ernst Boris?.

[37] 对广谱细菌的攻击：New Yorker, 22 Oct.2012, p. 36.

[38]　格兰特最终被送进了耶鲁纽黑文医院：Interview with Michael Kinch, Washington University of St Louis, 18 April 2018.

[39]　治疗70％的急性支气管炎病例都开出了抗生素处方：‘Superbug: An Epidemic Begins’, Harvard Magazine, May-June 2014.

[40]　大多数美国人在不知情的情况下，在饮食中摄入了二手抗生素：Blaser, Missing Microbes, p. 85; Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings, July 2012, p. 306.

[41] 瑞典于1986年禁止农用抗生素：Blaser, Missing Microbes, p. 84.

[42]　1977年，美国食品和药物管理局：Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings, July 2012, p. 306.

[43]　感染性疾病的死亡率一直在上升：Bakalar, Where the Germs Are, pp. 5-6.

[44]　它们不仅稳扎稳打地变得更具耐药性：‘Don't Pick Your Nose', London Review of Books, July 2004.

[45]　新的耐药形式：‘World Super Germ Born in Guildford', Daily Telegraph, 26 Aug. 2001;‘Squashing Superbugs', Scientific American, July 2009.

[46]　今天，MRSA及近亲：‘A Dearth in Innovation for Key Drugs', New York Times, 22 July 2014.

[47]　CRE感染能杀死一半左右的受害者：Nature, 25 July 2013, p. 394. 47 ‘It's just too expensive for them': Kinch interview;‘Resistance Is Futile', Atlantic, 15 Oct. 2011.

[48]　在全世界最大的18家制药公司里，除了两家例外：‘Antibiotic Resistance Is Worrisome, but Not Hopeless', New York Times, 8 March 2016.

[49]　按照目前的传播速度：BBC Inside Science, BBC Radio 4, 9 June2016; Chemistry World, March 2018, p. 51.

[50] 生产出带群体感应的药物：New Scientist, 14 Dec. 2013, p. 36.

[51]　但它们是地球上最丰富的生物粒子：‘Reengineering Life', Discovery, BBC Radio 4, 8 May 2017.

第四章　大脑：你的大脑80%都是水

[1]　大脑的稠度：‘Thanks for the Memory', New York Review of Books, 5 Oct. 2006; Lieberman, Evolution of the Human Head, p. 211.

[2]　总的来说，人类大脑可以容纳：‘Solving the Brain', Nature Neuroscience, 17 July 2013.

[3] 它只占我们体重的2％：Allen, Lives of the Brain, p. 188.

[4] 大脑是我们所有器官里最为昂贵的：Bribiescas, Men, p. 42.

[5] 大脑最高效的工作方式：Winston, Human Mind, p. 210.

[6]　这个数字似乎应该是86亿：‘Myths That Will Not Die', Nature, 17 Dec. 2015.

[7] 1立方厘米脑组织里：Eagleman, Incognito, p. 2.

[8]　它分为两个半球：Ashcroft, Spark of Life, p. 227; Allen, Lives of the Brain, p. 19.

[9]　颞叶上的六个区域：‘How Your Brain Recognizes All Those Faces', Smithsonian.com, 6 June 2017.

[10]　虽然小脑只占颅腔的10％：Allen, Lives of the Brain, p. 14; Zeman, Consciousness, p. 57; Ashcroft, Spark of Life, pp. 228-229.

[11]　人的衰老快慢速度：‘A Tiny Part of the Brain Appears to Orchestrate the Whole Body's Aging', Stat, July 2017.

[12] 杏仁核遭到破坏的人：O?Sullivan, Brainstorm, p. 91.

[13] 噩梦兴许只是：‘What Are Dreams?', Nova, PBS, 24 Nov. 2009.

[14]　眼睛每秒向大脑发送1000亿个信号：‘Attention', New Yorker, 1 Oct. 2014.

[15] 只有大约10％的信息：Nature, 20 April 2017, p. 296.

[16]　我们有一种无法抵挡的印象：Le Fanu, Why Us', p. 199. 58 implant entirely false memories in people's heads: Guardian, 4 Dec. 2003, p. 8.

[17]　一年后，心理学家向：New Scientist, 14 May 2011, p. 39. 58 The mind breaks each memory: Bainbridge, Beyond the Zonules of Zinn, p. 287.

[18]　一个一闪而过的念头：Lieberman, Evolution of the Human Head, p. 183.

[19]　这些记忆碎片：Le Fanu, Why Us', p. 213; Winston, Human Mind, p. 82.

[20]　它更像是维基百科页面：The Why Factor, BBC World Service, 6 Sept. 2013.

[21] 美国都会举办一场全国记忆大赛：Nature, 7 April 2011, p. 33.

[22]　这一设想，主要来自：Draaisma, Forgetting, pp. 163-170; ‘Memory', National Geographic, Nov. 2007.

[23]　我们对记忆的许多认识，来自：‘The Man Who Couldn't Remember', Nova, PBS, 1 June 2009; ‘How Memory Speaks', New York Review of Books, 22 May 2014; New Scientist, 28 Nov. 2015, p. 36.

[24]　神经科学的历史上，还很少有：Nature Neuroscience, Feb. 2010, p. 139.

[25] 却一次次地错过晋升：Neurosurgery, Jan. 2011, pp. 6-11.

[26] 白质和灰质的：Ashcroft, Spark of Life, p. 229.

[27] 人只使用了大脑10％的说法：Scienti?c American, Aug. 2011, p. 35.

[28]　青少年大脑中的神经连接只：‘Get Knitting', London Review of Books, 18 Aug. 2005.

[29] 青少年死亡的主要原因：New Yorker, 31 Aug. 2015, p. 85.

[30]　棘手之处就在于没有确定的方法：‘Human Brains Make New Nerve Cells', Science News, 5 April 2018; All Things Considered transcript, National Public Radio, 17 March 2018.

[31] 剩下1/3的大脑：Le Fanu, Why Us', p. 192.

[32]　如果你要设计一台泵动血液的有机机器：‘The Mystery of Consciousness', New York Review of Books, 2 Nov. 1995.

[33] 19世纪80年代，……通过一系列手术：Dittrich, Patient H.M., p. 79.

[34]　莫尼斯近乎完美地示范了：‘Unkind Cuts', New York Review of Books, 24 April 1986.

[35]　手术非常粗暴：‘The Lobotomy Files: One Doctor's Legacy', Wall Street Journal, 12 Dec. 2013.

[36]　弗里曼是个精神科医生，没有外科手术的施术资质：El-Hai, Lobotomist, p. 209.

[37] 大约2/3并未从中获益：同上，p. 171.

[38] 他最恶名远扬的失败：同上，pp. 173-174.

[39]　大脑严密地被保护性的颅骨包裹着：Sanghavi, Map of the Child, p. 107; Bainbridge, Beyond the Zonules of Zinn, pp. 233-235.

[40] 名为对侧外伤损伤：Lieberman, Evolution of the Human Head, p. 217.

[41]　在英国，直到1970年，法令全书中仍将癫痫：Literary Review, Aug. 2016, p. 36.

[42] 癫痫的历史可以概括：British Medical Journal 315 (1997).

[43]　卡普格拉斯综合征的患者：‘Can the Brain Explain Your Mind?', New York Review of Books, 24 March 2011.

[44]　克鲁尔-布西综合征的受害者会产生：‘Urge', New York Review of Books, 24 Sept. 2015.

[45] 最离奇的或许要算是：Sternberg, NeuroLogic, p. 133.

[46]　而闭锁综合征又与上述所有情况完全不同：Owen, Into the Grey Zone, p. 4.

[47]　显然无从得知：‘The Mind Reader', Nature Neuroscience,13 June 2014.

[48]　或许这无非是因为我们的生活方式不像过去那么生猛活跃：Lieberman, Evolution of the Human Head, p. 556; ‘If Modern Humans Are So Smart, Why Are Our Brains Shrinking?', Discover, 20 Jan. 2011.

第五章　头：没有头人能活多久

[1] 苏格兰女王玛丽的头……需要三记大力猛砍：Larson, Severed, p. 13.

[2] 夏洛特·柯尔黛于1793年：同上，p. 246.

[3]　戴维斯太出名了：Australian Indigenous Law Review, no. 92 (2007); New Literatures Review, University of Melbourne, Oct. 2004.

[4] 他确信，人的智力：Anthropological Review, Oct. 1868, pp. 386-394.

[5]　他将之称为“蒙古症”：Blakelaw and Jennett, Oxford Companion to the Body, p. 249; Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

[6]　斯蒂芬·杰·古尔德(Stephen Jay Gould)在《人的错误量度》(The Mismeasure of Man)中引用过：Gould, Mismeasure of Man, p. 138.

[7]　1861年，他对一位中风患者进行尸检：Le Fanu, Why Us', p. 180;

‘The Inferiority Complex', New York Review of Books, 22 Oct. 1981.

[8]　没有任何两名权威：See McNeill, Face, p. 180; Perrett, In Your Face, p. 21; ‘A Conversation with Paul Ekman', New York Times, 5 Aug. 2003.

[9] 刚从子宫诞生的婴儿：McNeill, Face, p. 4.

[10] 尽管这种变化小到无法被有意识地察觉到：同上，p. 26.

[11] 法国解剖学家杜乡·布伦：New Yorker, 12 Jan. 2015, p. 35.

[12] 人人都有微表情：‘Conversation with Paul Ekman?.

[13]　选择了生动活泼的小眉毛：‘Scientists Have an Intriguing New Theory About Our Eyebrows and Foreheads', Vox, 9 April 2018.

[14] 蒙娜丽莎看起来很神秘的原因之一：Perrett, In Your Face, p. 18.

[15]　外鼻和错综复杂的鼻窦：Lieberman, Evolution of the Human Head, p. 312.

[16]　我们内部有多达33种系统：The Uncommon Senses, BBC Radio 4, 20 March 2017.

[17]　自己的白细胞：‘Blue Sky Sprites', Naked Scientists, podcast,17 May 2016; ‘Evolution of the Human Eye', Scienti?c American, July 2011, p. 53.

[18]　它们的学术名字叫“muscae volitantes”(如果你想向别人炫耀的话)，直译其实就是“飞蚊”：‘Meet the Culprits Behind Bright Lights and Strange Floaters in Your Vision', Smithsonian.com, 24 Dec. 2014.

[19] 如果你手拿一颗人类眼球：McNeill, Face, p. 24.

[20]　在大众意识里赢得所有功劳的晶状体：Davies, Life Unfolding, p. 231.

[21] 眼泪不仅可以保持眼睑的流畅滑动：Lutz, Crying, pp. 67-68.

[22] 你每天会产生5～10盎司的眼泪：同上，p. 69.

[23]　眼白的正式名称叫巩膜：Lieberman, Evolution of the Human Head, p. 388.

[24]　他们的主要问题还不在于世界黯淡苍白：‘Outcasts of the Islands', New York Review of Books, 6 March 1997.

[25]　很久以后，灵长类动物重新演化出了：National Geographic, Feb. 2016, p. 56.

[26]　眼睛的运动叫作扫视：New Scientist, 14 May 2011, p. 356; Eagleman, Brain, p. 60.

[27]　维多利亚时代的自然主义者有时会将此视为：Blakelaw and Jennett, Oxford Companion to the Body, p. 82; Roberts, Incredible Unlikeliness of Being, p. 114; Eagleman, Incognito, p. 32.

[28]　它们是我们古代祖先的下颌骨骼：Shubin, Your Inner Fish, pp. 160-162.

[29] 压力波哪怕只将鼓膜震动了：Goldsmith, Discord, pp. 6-7.

[30] 从可觉察的最安静声音，到最响亮的声音：同上，p. 161.

[31] 这意味着，所有声波：Bathurst, Sound, pp. 28-29.

[32]　这个词是由英国邮政总局的托马斯·富勤·珀沃斯上校创造的：同上，p. 124.

[33]　当我们从旋转木马上跳下来时，会感到头晕：Bainbridge, Beyond the Zonules of Zinn, p. 110.

[34] 如果长时间或严重地失去平衡：Francis, Adventures in Human Being, p. 63.

[35]　30岁以下的年轻人，有一半：‘World Without Scent', Atlantic,12 Sept. 2015.

[36]　嗅觉是一门孤儿科学：Interview with Gary Beauchamp, Monell Chemical Senses Center, Philadelphia, 2016.

[37]　受体是被共振所激活的：Al-Khalili and McFadden, Life on the Edge, pp. 158-159.

[38] 香蕉包含了300种挥发物：Shepherd, Neurogastronomy, pp. 34-37.

[39] 西红柿有400种：Gilbert, What the Nose Knows, p. 45.

[40] 烤焦的杏仁味：Brooks, At the Edge of Uncertainty, p. 149.

[41]　甘草的气味：‘Secret of Liquorice Smell Unravelled', Chemistry World, Jan. 2017.

[42]　1927年由波士顿的两位化学工程师首次提出的：Holmes, Flavor, p. 49.

[43]　2014年，巴黎第六大学以及纽约洛克菲勒大学的研究人员：Science, 21 March 2014.

[44]　这些说法没有依据：‘Snif?ng Out Answers: A Conversation with Markus Meister', Caltech press release, 8 July 2015. (https://www.caltech.edu/ about/news/sniffing-out-answers-conversationmarkus-meister-47229).

[45]　某些气味能强烈唤起记忆：Monell website, ‘Olfaction Primer: How Smell Works?.

[46]　加利福尼亚大学伯克利分校的研究人员：‘Mechanisms of Scent Tracking in Humans', Nature, 4 Jan. 2007.

[47] 15种气味，对其中的5种：Holmes, Flavor, p. 63.

[48] 婴儿和母亲同样很擅长：Gilbert, What the Nose Knows, p. 63.

[49]　阿尔茨海默病的早期症状之一：Platoni, We Have the Technology, p. 39.

[50] 90%再也未能恢复：Blodgett, Remembering Smell, p. 19.

第六章　嘴：人是最容易被噎死的动物

[1]　玩耍当中：‘Pro?les', New Yorker, 9 Sept. 1953; Vaughan, Isambard Kingdom Brunel, pp. 196-197.

[2] 他就头一个提出假设：Birkhead, Most Perfect Thing, p. 150.

[3] 解剖学家在说到：Collis, Living with a Stranger, p. 20.

[4]　哽噎窒息也是今天美国第四大意外死亡的常见原因：Lieberman, Evolution of the Human Head, p. 297.

[5]　亨利·海姆立克是个有着表演天赋的人：‘The Choke Artist', New Republic, 23 April 2007; New York Times obituary, 23 April 2007.

[6]　2374种误入气管难以消化的异物：Cappello, Swallow, pp. 4-6; New York Times, 11 Jan. 2011.

[7]　杰克逊都是个孤零零的冷酷男子：Annals of Thoracic Surgery 57 (1994), pp. 502-505.

[8]　一名典型的成年人，每天分泌：‘Gut Health May Begin in the Mouth', Harvard Magazine, 20 Oct. 2017.

[9]　我们一生中分泌大约30,000升唾液：Tallis, Kingdom of Infinite Space, p. 25.

[10]　一种叫作“唾液镇痛剂”(opiorphin)的强效止痛药：‘Natural Painkiller Found in Human Spit', Nature, 13 Nov. 2006.

[11] 我们睡觉时产生的唾液很少：Enders, Gut, p. 22.

[12] 多达150种不同的化合物：Scienti?c American, May 2013, p. 20.

[13] 大约1000种细菌：同上。

[14]　道森的研究小组发现，吹蛋糕蜡烛：Clemson University press release, ‘A True Food Myth Buster', 13 Dec. 2011.

[15] 牙齿被称为“现成的化石”：Ungar, Evolution's Bite, p. 5.

[16] 一名典型成年男性：Lieberman, Evolution of the Human Head, p. 226.

[17] 它们有着最强的再生能力：New Scientist, 16 March 2013, p. 45.

[18] 可追溯回……一本教科书：Nature, 21 June 2012, p. S2.

[19] 身体在肠道和喉咙里有跟嘴里一样的味觉受体：Roach, Gulp, p. 46.

[20] 也发现了味觉受体：New Scientist, 8 Aug. 2015, pp. 40-41.

[21]　含有一种叫作河豚毒素的毒药：Ashcroft, Life at the Extremes, p. 54; ‘Last Supper?', Guardian, 5 Aug. 2016.

[22]　英国作家尼古拉斯·埃文斯：‘I Wanted to Die. It Was So Grim', Daily Telegraph, 2 Aug. 2011.

[23]　我们有大约10,000个味觉受体：‘A Matter of Taste?', Chemistry World, Feb. 2017; Holmes, Flavor, p. 83; ‘Fire-Eaters', New Yorker, 4 Nov. 2013.

[24] 有一种经纯化的摩洛哥种大戟科植物：Holmes, Flavor, p. 85.

[25]　大量食用辣椒素的中国成年人：Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings, Jan. 2016, p. 47.

[26] 一些权威人士认为：New Scientist, 8 Aug. 2015, pp. 40-41.

[27]　如今，味之素早已成为行业巨头：Mouritsen and Styrbk, Umami, p. 28.

[28] 据说，气味至少占滋味：Holmes, Flavor, p. 21.

[29]　学生无一例外地为两种葡萄酒列出了：BMC Neuroscience, 18 Sept. 2007.

[30] 如果一种橙汁饮料是红色：Scienti?c American, Jan. 2013, p. 69.

[31] 存在更广泛的争议：Lieberman, Evolution of the Human Head, p. 315.

[32] 它内部和周围有9根软骨：同上，p. 284.

[33]　19世纪德国最杰出的一位外科医生约翰·迪芬巴赫：‘The Paralysis of Stuttering', New York Review of Books, 26 April 2012.

第七章　心脏和血液：你分不分手和心脏可没有半点关系

[1]　“停了”：引自‘In the Hands of Any Fool', London Review of Books, 3 July 1997.

[2] 这个符号最初是在：Peto, Heart, p. 30.

[3] 你的心脏每小时派送：Nuland, How We Die, p. 22.

[4] 据计算：Morris, Bodywatching, p. 11.

[5]　在心脏泵出的所有血液里：Blakelaw and Jennett, Oxford Companion to the Body, pp. 88-89.

[6]　每当你站起身：The Curious Cases of Rutherford and Fry, BBC Radio 4, 13 Sept. 2016.

[7]　早期有关血压的很多研究：Amidon and Amidon, Sublime Engine, p. 116; Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, s.v. ‘Hales, Stephen?.

[8]　进入20世纪很久以后：‘Why So Many of Us Die of Heart Disease', Atlantic, 6 March 2018.

[9]　2017年，美国心脏协会：‘New Blood Pressure Guidelines Put Half of US Adults in Unhealthy Range', Science News, 13 Nov. 2017.

[10] 至少有5000万美国人：Amidon and Amidon, Sublime Engine, p. 227.

[11]　仅在美国：Health, United States, 2016, DHSS Publication No. 2017-1232, May 2017.

[12]　心脏病发作和心脏骤停：Wolpert, You?re Looking Very Well, p. 18; ‘Don?t Try This at Home', London Review of Books, 29 Aug. 2013.

[13]　大约1/4的受害者：Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings, April 2017, p. 240.

[14]　女性比男性更容易出现：Brooks, At the Edge of Uncertainty, pp. 104-105.

[15]　东南亚的赫蒙族人：Amidon and Amidon, Sublime Engine, pp. 191-192.

[16]　肥厚性心肌病症是：‘When Genetic Autopsies Go Awry', Atlantic, 11 Oct. 2016.

[17] 触发公众意识的事件：Pearson, Life Project, pp. 101-103.

[18]　弗雷明汉研究项目招募了5000名本地成年人：同上，framinghamheartstudy.org.

[19] 就把导管插入了自己手臂的动脉：Nourse, Body, p. 85.

[20]　制造一台能人工给血液充氧的机器：Le Fanu, Rise and Fall of Modern Medicine, p. 95; National Academy of Sciences, biographical memoir by Harris B. Schumacher Jr, Washington, DC, 1982.

[21]　1958年，瑞典工程师儒尼·艾尔姆奎斯特：Ashcroft, Spark of Life, pp. 152-153.

[22]　2000年，法瓦洛罗自杀身亡：New York Times obituary, 21 Aug. 2000; ‘Interview: Dr. Steven E. Nissen', Take One Step, PBS, Aug. 2006, www.pbs.org.

[23]　为了摘下一颗还在跳动的心脏：Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings, Oct. 2017, p. 476.

[24] 弗雷的样本中含有一种真菌多孔木霉：同上，p. 247.

[25]　成功率达到了80％：Le Fanu, Rise and Fall of Modern Medicine, p. 102.

[26]　今天，全球每年要进行4000～5000次心脏移植手术：Amidon and Amidon, Sublime Engine, pp. 198-199.

[27] 这名年轻女子的父母认为：Economist, 28 April 2018, p. 56.

[28]　每年因心脏病而死的美国人，跟……一样多： Kinch, Prescription for Change, p. 112.

[29]　到2000年，美国每年要进行100万例预防性球囊成形术：Welch, Less Medicine, More Health, pp. 34-36.

[30] 这就是美式医疗最糟糕的地方：同上，p. 38.

[31]　一个刚出生的婴儿只含有大约半品脱血液：Collis, Living with a Stranger, p. 28.

[32]　人体的血管共有约25,000英里长：Pasternak, Molecules Within Us, p. 58.

[33] 一滴血：Hill, Blood, pp. 14-15.

[34] 在美国，血浆销售：Economist, 12 May 2018, p. 12.

[35]　血红蛋白有一种奇怪且危险的癖好：Annals of Medicine, New Yorker, 31 Jan. 1970.

[36]　每一颗红细胞都将在你身体里穿梭：Blakelaw and Jennett, Oxford Companion to the Body, p. 85.

[37] 在严重的出血中：Miller, Body in Question, pp. 121-122.

[38]　还在免疫反应和组织再生中发挥着重要作用：Nature, 28 Sept.

2017, p. S 13.

[39] 几乎所有哈维的同行都认为：Zimmer, Soul Made Flesh, p. 74.

[40]　哈维不理解呼吸作用，所以无法解释血液的用途，以及它为什么要流动：Wootton, Bad Medicine, pp. 95-98.

[41]　罗尔……便将大约半品脱活羊的鲜血，输入了：‘An Account of the Experiment of Transfusion, Practised upon a Man in London', Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 9 Dec. 1667.

[42] 让血液冷却散发：Zimmer, Soul Made Flesh, p. 152.

[43]　我观察到，放血最多的人恢复得也最快：‘Politics of Yellow Fever in Alexander Hamilton's America', US National Library of Medicine, undated. (https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/politicsofyellowfever/ collection-transcript14.html).

[44]　威廉·奥斯勒……是……教科书《医学原理与实践》的作者：

‘An Autopsy of Dr. Osler', New York Review of Books, 25 May 2000.

[45] 虽说所有人都把最后一组读成：Nourse, Body, p. 184.

[46] 抗原总共有400多种：Sanghavi, Map of the Child, p. 64.

[47]　“血液是一种活组织”：Dr Allan Doctor interview, Oxford, 18 Sept. 2018.

[48]　50多年来：‘The Quest for One of Science's Holy Grails: Arti?cial Blood', Stat, 27 Feb. 2017; ‘Red Blood Cell Substitutes', Chemistry World, 16 Feb. 2018.

[49]　节省了160万美元的成本：‘Save Blood, Save Lives', Nature, 2 April 2015.

第八章　化学部门：三个月还你一个新的肝

[1] 有个12岁的男孩饿得太厉害了：Bliss, Discovery of Insulin, p. 37.

[2] 构思有误、执行有误、阐释有误：同上，pp. 12-13.

[3]　《发现胰岛素》：‘The Pissing Evile', London Review of Books, 1 Dec. 1983.

[4]　患者的肠道微生物不平衡：‘Cause and Effect', Nature, 17 May 2012.

[5] 从1980年到2014年……成年人数量：Nature, 26 May 2016, p. 460.

[6]　这意味着胰岛素水平：‘The Edmonton Protocol', New Yorker, 10 Feb. 2003.

[7]　我爱激素：Interviews with Dr John Wass, Oxford, 21 March and 17 Sept. 2018.

[8]　斯塔林……创造出“hormone”：Sengoopta, Most Secret Quintessence of Life, p. 4.

[9]　历史上最著名的受害者是：Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 1 Dec. 2006, pp. 4849-4853; ‘The Medical Ordeals of JFK', Atlantic, Dec. 2002.

[10]　在给人类施用催产素的临床测试中：Nature, 25 June 2015, pp. 410-412.

[11]　或许没人比：Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, London, Nov. 1998; New York Times obituary, 19 Jan. 1995.

[12] 睾酮到底怎样缩短了男性的生命：Bribiescas, Men, p. 202.

[13] 大量的证据表明它：New Scientist, 16 May 2015, p. 32.

[14]　非酒精性脂肪性肝病：Nature, 23 Nov. 2017, p. S85; Annals of Internal Medicine, 6 Nov. 2018.

[15] 它们每天处理大约180升水：Pasternak, Molecules Within Us, p. 60.

[16] 随着年龄的增加，膀胱会失去弹性：Nuland, How We Die, p. 55.

[17] 尿液世界同样存在微生物：Nature, 9 Nov. 2017, p. S40.

[18] 历史上最著名的碎石术：Tomalin, Samuel Pepys, pp. 60-65.

[19]　佩皮斯一直……纪念自己的幸存日：‘Samuel Pepys and His Stones', Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons 59 (1977).

第九章　解剖和骨骼：三块肌肉造就人类文明

[1]　你来感受一下。本·奥利维尔医生对我说：Dr Ben Ollivere interview, Nottingham, 23-24 June 2017.

[2]　美国爆发了一件小小的丑闻：‘Yale Students and Dental Professor Took Sel?e with Severed Heads', Guardian, 5 Feb. 2018.

[3] 伟大的解剖学家安德烈·维萨里：Wootton, Bad Medicine, p. 74.

[4] 在英格兰，威廉·哈维：Larson, Severed, p. 217.

[5] 法罗皮奥和罪犯一起：Wootton, Bad Medicine, p. 91.

[6]　他的所有插图都必须：Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings, Oct. 2009, pp. 342-345.

[7]　经常运动为什么有助于避免阿尔茨海默病：‘Do Our Bones In?uence Our Minds?', New Yorker, 1 Nov. 2013.

[8] 让人站起来只需要100块肌肉：Collis, Living with a Stranger, p. 56.

[9]　美国国家航空航天局的研究表明：NASA information sheet,

‘Muscle Atrophy?.

[10]　查尔斯·贝尔爵士：Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, s.v.

‘Bell, Sir Charles?.

[11]　我们的拇指里有：Roberts, Incredible Unlikeliness of Being, pp. 333-335.

[12]　我们的大部分认识来自：Francis, Adventures in Human Being,pp. 126-127.

[13]　人类的步行速度平均为：‘Gait Analysis: Principles and Applications', American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, Oct. 1995.

[14] 鸵鸟为了解决这个问题：Taylor, Body by Darwin, p. 85.

[15] 年仅18岁：Medawar, Uniqueness of the Individual, p. 109.

[16] 60％的成年人：Wall, Pain, pp. 100-101.

[17]　外科医生每年要进行超过80万例关节置换手术：‘The Coming Revolution in Knee Repair', Scienti?c American, March 2015.

[18]　几乎没有人听说过查恩利：Le Fanu, Rise and Fall of Modern Medicine, pp. 104-108.

[19] 3/4的男性和一半的女性：Wolpert, You?re Looking Very Well, p. 21.

第十章　为什么只有人选择了直立行走

[1]　2016年，得克萨斯大学的人类学家：‘Perimortem Fractures in Lucy Suggest Mortality from Fall Out of Tall Tree', Nature, 22 Sept. 2016.

[2]　黑猩猩使用的能量比人类使用的多四倍：Lieberman, Story of the Human Body, p. 42.

[3]　化石证据表明，早期人类：‘The Evolution of Marathon Running', Sports Medicine 37, no. 4-5 (2007); ‘Elastic Energy Storage in the Shoulder and the Evolution of High-Speed Throwing inHomo', Nature, 27 June 2013.

[4]　杰里米·莫里斯确信：Jeremy Morris obituary, New York Times, 7 Nov. 2009.

[5]　经常散步可将心脏病发作或中风的风险降低：New Yorker, 20 May 2013, p. 46.

[6]　每天活动一小时或更长时间：Scientific American, Aug. 2013, p.71; ‘Is Exercise Really Medicine? An Evolutionary Perspective', Current Sports Medicine Reports, July-Aug. 2015.

[7]　每天都走上1万步：‘Watch Your Step', Guardian, 3 Sept. 2018. 180 Only about 20 per cent of people: ‘Is Exercise Really Medicine??

[8]　如今，美国人平均每天步行：Lieberman, Story of the Human Body, pp. 217-218.

[9] 有些员工据说会把：Economist, 5 Jan. 2019, p. 50.

[10]　相比之下……现代狩猎采集部落里的人：‘Is Exercise Really Medicine??

[11] 如果你想理解人体：Lieberman interview.

[12]　如果世界上的其他所有人：‘Eating Disorder', Economist, 19 June 2012.

[13]　一个健美运动员和一个“沙发土豆”：‘The Fat Advantage', Nature, 15 Sept. 2016.

[14]　美国女性的平均体重：Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings, Jan. 2016.

[15]　如今超过一半的儿童：‘Interest in Ketogenic Diet Grows for Weight Loss and Type 2 Diabetes', Journal of the American Medical Association, 16 Jan. 2018.

[16] 当前一代的年轻人：Zuk, Paleofantasy, p. 5.

[17] 英国人的肥胖率仅次于：Economist, 31 March 2018, p. 30.

[18] 全球肥胖率为13%：Economist, 6 Jan. 2018, p. 20.

[19]　根据一项计算……你必须步行：‘The Bears Best Friend', New York Review of Books, 12 May 2016.

[20]　人们对自己在锻炼中消耗的热量高估了：‘Exercise in Futility', Atlantic, April 2016.

[21] 工厂工人：Lieberman, Story of the Human Body, p. 217.

[22]　经常坐着的人：‘Are You Sitting Comfortably? Well, Don?t', New Scientist, 26 June 2013.

[23]　只要你一个晚上：‘Our Amazingly Plastic Brains', Wall Street Journal, 6 Feb. 2015; ‘The Futility of the Workout-Sit Cycle', Atlantic, 16 Aug. 2016.

[24]　肥胖专家詹姆斯·列文：‘Killer Chairs: How Desk Jobs Ruin Your Health', Scienti?c American, Nov. 2014.

[25]　只是站立，每小时也会多燃烧107卡路里：New Scientist, 25 Aug. 2012, p. 41.

[26] 一派胡言：‘The Big Fat Truth', Nature, 23 May 2013.

第十一章　体内平衡：发烧是你的身体在自救

[1] 小动物产生热量：Blumberg, Body Heat, pp. 35-38.

[2] 动物有一个奇怪的共同点：West, Scale, p. 197.

[3] 典型的哺乳动物……30倍：Lane, Power, Sex, Suicide, p. 179.

[4] 稍微偏离上一两摄氏度：Blumberg, Body Heat, p. 206.

[5]　这一实验在很大程度上让人回想起：Royal Society, ‘Experiments and Observations in an Heated Room by Charles Blagden, 1774?.

[6]　奇怪的是，没有人知道为什么会这样：Ashcroft, Life at the Extremes, pp. 133-134; Blumberg, Body Heat, pp. 146-147.

[7] 体温仅升高1℃左右：Davis, Beautiful Cure, p. 113.

[8]　顺便提一句，有一种看法说，我们的大部分热量是通过：‘Myth: We Lose Most Heat from Our Heads', Naked Scientists podcast, 24 Oct. 2016.

[9]　创造这个词的是：Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society 5, no. 15 (Feb. 1947): pp. 407-423; American National Biography,s.v. ‘Cannon, Walter Bradford?.

[10]　就伏都教风俗写了一篇……论文：‘?Voodooせ Death', American Anthropologist, April-June 1942.

[11]每一天，你都产生和使用：West, Scale, p. 100.

[12] 你体内都只有60克ATP：Lane, Vital Question, p. 63.

[13] 发现答案的人：Biographical Memoirs, Royal Society, London.

[14]　我是你第一个老婆：Biochemistry and Biology Molecular Education 32, no. 1 (2004): pp. 62-66.

[15]　身高只有你一半的孩子：‘Size and Shape', Natural History, Jan. 1974.

[16]　第二次世界大战中英国飞行员：‘The Indestructible Alkemade', RAF Museum website, posted 24 Dec. 2014.

[17]　一个蹒跚学步的小孩子艾丽卡·诺德比：Edmonton Sun, 28 Aug. 2014.

[18]　1998年至2018年8月期间，美国有近800名儿童：Full details can be found at the website noheatstroke.org.

[19] 全世界海拔最高的永久性居住点：Ashcroft, Life at the Extremes, p. 8.

[20] 丹增·诺尔盖和雷蒙德·兰伯特：同上，p. 26.

[21] 在海平面，红细胞大约占据了40%的血液体积：同上，p. 341.

[22] 阿什克罗夫特提到过一名飞行员的例子：同上，p. 19.

[23]　纳粹德国曾对健康的囚犯：Annas and Grodin, Nazi Doctors and the Nuremberg Code, pp. 25-26.

[24] 在一项典型的实验中：Williams and Wallace, Unit 731, p. 42.

[25]　一些人甚至在清醒时惨遭解剖：‘Blood and Money', New York Review of Books, 4 Feb. 1999.

[26] 如果需要孕妇或小孩做实验：Lax, Toxin, p. 123.

[27] 东京庆应义塾大学的一名学生：Williams and Wallace, Unit 731.

第十二章　免疫：发炎是免疫系统战斗后的痕迹

[1]　我们体内大约有300种不同类型的免疫细胞在运转：‘Ambitious Human Cell Atlas Aims to Catalog Every Type of Cell in the Body', National Public Radio, 13 Aug. 2018.

[2]　皮肤中的树突状细胞：Interview with Professor Daniel Davis, University of Manchester, 30 Nov. 2018.

[3]　要是你压力过大或者疲惫不堪：‘Department of Defense', New York Review of Books, 8 Oct. 1987.

[4] 总共约有5%的人患有：Davis, Beautiful Cure, p. 149.

[5] 整个身体里最聪明的小细胞：Bainbridge, Visitor Within, p. 185.

[6] 胸腺是T细胞的苗圃：Davis, Compatibility Gene, p. 38.

[7] 最后一个确认人体器官功能的人：Lancet, 8 Oct. 2011, p. 1290.

[8] 错误的发炎：‘In?amed', New Yorker, 30 Nov. 2015.

[9] 免疫系统会变得发狂：Kinch interview.

[10]　“活泼、善于交际、温文尔雅、长于交谈”：‘High on Science', New York Review of Books, 16 Aug. 1990.

[11]　临床上的良好意愿：Medawar, Uniqueness of the Individual, p. 132.

[12]　年仅23岁的理查德·赫里克：Le Fanu, Rise and Fall of Modern Medicine, pp. 121-123; ‘A Transplant Makes History', Harvard Gazette, 22 Sept. 2011.

[13]　截至2018年底，美国有11.4万人：‘The Disturbing Reason Behind the Spike in Organ Donations', Washington Post, 17 April 2018.

[14]　接受透析治疗的人平均能多活8年：Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings, April 2014.

[15]　使用动物移植：‘Genetically Engineering Pigs to Grow Organs for People', Atlantic, 10 Aug. 2017.

[16]　人类总共存在大约50种自身免疫性疾病：Davis, Beautiful Cure, p. 149.

[17]　1932年，纽约内科医生……在此之前：Blaser, Missing Microbes, p. 177.

[18]　利伯曼认为，过度使用抗生素：Lieberman, Story of the Human Body, p. 178.

[19]　自身免疫性疾病性别歧视严重：Bainbridge, X in Sex, p. 157; Martin,

Sickening Mind, p. 72.

|[20] 这个词第一次出现在英语：Oxford English Dictionary.

|[21] 大约50%的人声称：‘Skin: Into the Breach', Nature, 23 Nov. 2011.

[22] 飞机上的一名儿童：Pasternak, Molecules Within Us, p. 174.

[23]　美国国家过敏症和传染病研究所：‘Feed Your Kids Peanuts, Early and Often, New Guidelines Urge', New York Times, 5 Jan. 2017.

[24]　著名的“卫生假说”：‘Lifestyle: When Allergies Go West',

Nature, 24 Nov. 2011; Yong, I Contain Multitudes, p. 122; ‘Eat

Dirt?', Natural History, n.d.

第十三章　肺和呼吸：你呼出的氧分子将永垂不朽

[1] 你的每一次呼吸，会呼出：Chemistry World, Feb. 2018, p. 66.

[2] 20%的抗生素处方：Scienti?c American, Feb. 2016, p. 32.

[3]　喷嚏沫可以飞出8米远：‘Where Sneezes Go', Nature, 2 June 2016;

‘Why Do We Sneeze?', Smithsonian, 29 Dec. 2015.

[4]　我们的肺可以容纳大约6升空气：‘Breathe Deep', Scientific American, Aug. 2012.

[5] 一个普通身材的成年人：West, Scale, p. 152.

[6] 在开启信件之前：Carter, Marcel Proust, p. 72.

[7] 无论身在何处：同上，p. 224.

[8] 它是英国儿童死亡的第四大原因：Jackson, Asthma, p. 159.

[9]　例如，日本的哮喘发病率并未出现大幅上升：‘Lifestyle: When Allergies Go West', Nature, 24 Nov. 2011.

[10]　你或许以为，哮喘是：Interview with Professor Neil Pearce, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 28 Nov. 2018.

[11]　哮喘发作时，呼吸道变窄：‘Asthma: Breathing New Life into Research', Nature, 24 Nov. 2011.

[12]　西方生活方式到底怎样引发了哮喘：‘Lifestyle: When Allergies Go West?;　‘Asthma and the Westernization ?Packageせ', International Journal of Epidemiology 31 (2002), pp. 1098-102.

[13]　我们现在的这群孩子：‘Lifestyle: When Allergies Go West', Nature, 24 Nov. 2011.

[14]　经常吸烟的人：‘Getting Away with Murder', New York Review of Books, 19 July 2007.

[15] 英国卫生部长伊恩·麦克劳德：Wootton, Bad Medicine, p. 263.

[16] 没有人确定香烟的烟雾：‘Getting Away with Murder?.

[17]　美国成年人平均：‘A Reporter at Large', New Yorker, 30 Nov. 1963.

[18] 吸烟数量：Smith, Body, p. 329.

[19]　一位董事会成员：‘Cancer: Malignant Maneuvers', New York Review of Books, 6 March 2008.

[20]　迟至1973年，《自然》杂志还曾发表编辑文章：‘Get the Placentas', London Review of Books, 2 June 2016.

[21] 打嗝的世界纪录：Sioux City Journal, 4 Jan. 2015.

第十四章　食物：熟食给了人类更大的大脑和更多的时间

[1]　今天的美国人比1970年多摄入大约25%的卡路里：Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings, Jan. 2017, p. 134.

[2]　卡路里测量之父：American National Biography, s.v. ‘Atwater, Wilbur Olin?; USDA Agricultural Research Service website; Wesleyan University website.

[3] 我们应该多吃肉：McGee, On Food and Cooking, p. 534.

[4]　你吃了包含170卡路里的杏仁：‘Everything You Know About Calories Is Wrong', Scienti?c American, Sept. 2013.

[5]　你不可能拥有体积庞大的大脑：Interview with Professor Daniel Lieberman, London, 22 Oct. 2018.

[6] 想象的臆造：Gratzer, Terrors of the Table, p. 170.

[7]　这样一篇糟糕的论文：‘Nutrition: Vitamins on Trial', Nature, 25 June 2014.

[8]　美国人有多达：‘How Did We Get Hooked on Vitamins?', The Inquiry, BBC World Service, 31 Dec. 2018.

[9]　他每天服用4万毫克的维生素C：‘The Dark Side of Linus Pauling's Legacy', quackwatch.org, 14 Sept. 2014.

[10] 蛋白质是复杂分子：Smith, Body, p. 429.

[11]　为什么演化只让我们与这么少量的氨基酸结合：Challoner, Cell, p. 38.

[12] 世界上大多数传统饮食：McGee, On Food and Cooking, p. 534.

[13] 饮食中几乎所有的碳水化合物：同上，p. 803.

[14] 一份150克的白米饭：New Scientist, 11 June 2016, p. 32.

[15]　出于种种复杂的化学理由：Lieberman, Story of the Human Body, p. 255.

[16] 一枚鳄梨含有的饱和脂肪：New Scientist, 2 Aug. 2014, p. 35.

[17]　直到2004年，美国心脏协会：Kummerow obituary, New York Times, 1 June 2017.

[18]　这个想法可以追溯到1945年：More or Less, BBC Radio 4, 6 Jan. 2017.

[19] 想喝多少水就喝多少水的人：Roach, Grunt, p. 133.

[20]　喝太多水：‘Can You Drink Too Much Water?', New York Times, 19 June 2015; ‘Strange but True: Drinking Too Much Water Can Kill', Scienti?c American, 21 June 2007.

[21] 人一辈子要吃差不多60吨食物：Zimmer, Microcosm, p. 56.

[22] 受肥胖折磨的人远多于：Nature, 2 Feb. 2012, p. 27.

[23] 每个星期吃一块巧克力饼干：New Scientist, 18 July 2009, p. 32.

[24]　对我们产生了最大启蒙作用的人：Keys obituary, Washington Post, 2 Nov. 2004; Keys obituary, New York Times, 23 Nov. 2004; Journal of Health and Human Behavior (Winter 1963): pp. 291-293; American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (March 2010).

[25]　基斯着手进行了一场日后称作“明尼苏达饥饿实验”的探索：‘They Starved So That Others Be Better Fed: Remembering Ancel Keys and the Minnesota Experiment', Journal of Nutrition 135, no. 6, June 2005.

[26]　1/5的美国年轻人：‘What Not to Eat', New York Times, 2 Jan. 2017;

‘How Much Harm Can Sugar Do?', New Yorker, 8 Sept. 2015.

[27]　莎士比亚吃的水果：Lieberman, Story of the Human Body, p. 265; ‘Best Before?', New Scientist, 17 Oct. 2015.

[28]　美国最受欢迎的蔬菜：Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings, April 2011, p. 158.

[29]　美国人平均每天摄入3400毫克：‘Clearing Up the Confusion About Salt', New York Times, 20 Nov. 2017.

[30]　麦克马斯特大学……进行了一项综合分析：Chemistry World, Sept. 2016, p. 50.

[31]　我们发现，发表的文献：International Journal of Epidemiology, 17 Feb. 2016.

[32]　最初只是想讨一个姑娘的欢心：Interview with Professor Christopher Gardner, Palo Alto, Calif., 29 Jan. 2018.

[33] 大约40%患有糖尿病：Nature, 2 Feb. 2012, p. 27.

[34]　50%怪遗传，50%怪芝士汉堡：National Geographic, Feb. 2007, p. 49.

第十五章　肠胃：为什么女性的消化时间要比男性长一整天

[1] 这些管道的表面积：Vogel, Lifers Devices, p. 42.

[2]　食物在女性体内多逗留：Blakelaw and Jennett, Oxford Companion to the Body, p. 19.

[3]　这就是为什么总有人提醒你：‘Fiber Is Good for You. Now Scientists May Know Why', New York Times, 1 Jan. 2018.

[4] 你肚子里发出的咕咕声：Enders, Gut, p. 83.

[5]　美国一年有3000人：‘A Bug in the System', New Yorker, 2 Feb. 2015, p. 30.

[6] 但他们认为把汉堡加热到：Food Safety News, 27 Dec. 2017.

[7] 美国农业部的一项研究认为：‘Bug in the System', p. 30.

[8]　人们往往会把病源归咎为自己最近一次：‘What to Blame for Your Stomach Bug? Not Always the Last Thing You Ate', New York Times, 29 June 2017.

[9]　四处漂泊好些年之后：‘Men and Books', Canadian Medical Association Journal, June 1959.

[10]　美国每年约有25万人因阑尾炎住院：‘The Global Incidence of Appendicitis: A Systematic Review of Population-Based Studies', Annals of Surgery, Aug. 2017.

[11]　富裕国家的急性阑尾炎发病率：Blakelaw and Jennett, Oxford Companion to the Body, p. 43.

[12] 利普斯对病人的态度：New York Times obituary, 20 April 2005.

[13]　世界各地找他来看病的人：‘Killing Cures', New York Review of Books, 11 Aug. 2005.

[14] 每克粪便中：Money, Amoeba in the Room, p. 144.

[15] 从同一堆粪便的两头所取的样本：Nature, 21 Aug. 2014, p. 247.

[16]　大肠杆菌有两种菌株：Zimmer, Microcosm, p. 20; Lane, Power, Sex, Suicide, p. 119.

[17]　大肠杆菌才以他的名字命名：Clinical Infectious Diseases,15 Oct. 2007, pp. 1025-1029.

[18] 嗅觉神经变得麻痹了：Roach, Gulp, p. 253.

[19]　众多记录下来的案例之一：‘Fatal Colonic Explosion During Colonoscopic Polypectomy', Gastroenterology 77, no. 6 (1979).

第十六章　睡眠：为什么你睡觉不会从床上掉下来

[1]　1989年……一项……实验：‘Sleep Deprivation in the Rat', Sleep 12, no. 1 (1989).

[2] 有高血压早期症状的人：Nature, 23 May 2013, p. S7.

[3] 如果睡眠没有：Scienti?c American, Oct. 2015, p. 42.

[4]　哪怕像线虫和果蝇这样简单的生物：New Scientist, 2 Feb. 2013, pp. 38-39.

[5]　阿塞林斯基头一个晚上的受试者：‘The Stubborn Scientist Who Unraveled a Mystery of the Night', Smithsonian, Sept. 2003; ‘Rapid Eye Movement Sleep: Regulation and Function', Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 15 June 2013.

[6] 前两个阶段的睡眠很浅：Martin, Counting Sheep, p. 98.

[7]　大多数男性在REM睡眠期会勃起：同上，pp. 133-139; ‘Cerebral Hygiene', London Review of Books, 29 June 2017.

[8] 一般人一晚上会翻身：Martin, Counting Sheep, p. 104.

[9] 12名长途飞行的飞行员进行了研究：同上，pp. 39-40.

[10]　这也许可以解释：Burnett, Idiot Brain, p. 25; Sternberg, NeuroLogic, pp. 13-14.

[11] 一名观众高喊：Davis, Beautiful Cure, p. 133.

[12]　他们很难接受自己已经研究了：Interview with Professor Russell

Foster, Brasenose College, Oxford, 17 Oct. 2018.

[13]　松果体不是我们的灵魂：Bainbridge, Beyond the Zonules of Zinn, p. 200.

[14] 研究人员请他估计：Shubin, Universe Within, pp. 55-67.

[15] 这些最畅销的药物约有一半：Davis, Beautiful Cure, p. 37.

[16]　上课时间晚一些：‘Let Teenagers Sleep In', New York Times, 20 Sept. 2018.

[17]　失眠跟糖尿病：‘In Search of Forty Winks', New Yorker, 8-15 Feb. 2016.

[18]　经常上夜班的女性：‘Of Owls, Larks, and Alarm Clocks', Nature, 11 March 2009.

[19]　大约50%打鼾的人：‘Snoring: What to Do When a Punch in the Shoulder Fails', New York Times, 11 Dec. 2010.

[20]　最极端、最可怕的失眠症：Zeman, Consciousness, pp. 46-47;

‘The Family That Couldn?t Sleep', New York Times, 2 Sept. 2006.

[21] 一些权威人士认为，朊病毒：Nature, 10 April 2014, p. 181.

[22]　在全世界范围内，患病比例是400万分之一：‘The Wild Frontiers of Slumber', Nature, 1 March 2018; Zeman, Consciousness, pp. 106-109.

[23]　我记得自己醒来时：Morning Edition, National Public Radio, 27 Dec. 2017.

[24]　打哈欠甚至与你的疲劳程度没有可靠的关联：Martin, Counting Sheep, p. 140.

第十七章　进入不可描述地带：Y染色体将在460万年后消失

[1] 有一回，总统访问农场时：这个故事当然不足为信。

[2]　内蒂·史蒂文斯本应该更出名的：‘Nettie M. Stevens and the Discovery of Sex Determination by Chromosomes', Isis, June 1978; American National Biography.

[3] 只是个惊人的巧合罢了：Bainbridge, X in Sex, p. 66.

[4]　眼巴巴地站在绞刑架底下：‘The Chromosome Number in Humans: A Brief History', Nature Reviews Genetics, 1 Aug. 2006.

[5] 这个数字一直保持不变，基本无人怀疑：Ridley, Genome, pp. 23-24.

[6]　经过了无数代制造小男孩和小女孩的繁衍之后：‘Vive la Difference', New York Review of Books, 12 May 2005.

[7]　按照它目前的恶化速度：‘Sorry, Guys: Your Y Chromosome May Be Doomed', Smithsonian, 19 Jan. 2018.

[8] 人类实际上根本就不再生：Mukherjee, Gene, p. 357.

[9]　有多少人曾在亲密关系中对伴侣不忠：‘In?dels', New Yorker, 18-25 Dec. 2017.

[10] 一项研究中，女性受访者：Spiegelhalter, Sex by Numbers, p. 35.

[11]　由于资金问题，只有3432人：American Journal of Public Health, July 1996, pp. 1037-1040; ‘What, How Often, and with Whom?', London Review of Books, 3 Aug. 1995.

[12] 这让斯皮格尔霍尔特禁不住好奇：Spiegelhalter, Sex by Numbers, p. 2.

[13] 做爱的中位数时间：同上，pp. 218-220.

[14]　黑猩猩和人类：‘Bonobos Join Chimps as Closest Human Relatives', Science News, 13 June 2012.

[15] 他们比女性更容易受到感染：Bribiescas, Men, pp. 174-176.

[16] 阴道分泌物是唯一……体液：Roach, Bonk, p. 12.

[17]　它得名自德国妇科医生兼科学家恩斯特·格拉芬贝格：American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Aug. 2001, p. 359.

[18] 直到20世纪初，?clitorisせ: Oxford English Dictionary.

[19] 子宫的重量是50克：Cassidy, Birth, p. 80.

[20]　许多哺乳动物的睾丸都长在体内，而且运转良好：Bainbridge, Teenagers, pp. 254-255.

[21]　存在大量的不确定性：‘Skin Deep', New York Review of Books, 7 Oct. 1999.

[22]　权威人士似乎普遍认为：Morris, Bodywatching, p. 216; Spiegelhalter, Sex by Numbers, pp. 216-217.

第十八章　怀孕与生育：人的分娩是最大的设计失误

[1]　成功受精的概率：‘Not from Venus, Not from Mars', New York Times, 25-26 Feb. 2017, international edition.

[2]　杂志上刊登过一篇综合分析：‘Yes, Sperm Counts Have Been Steadily Declining', Smithsonian.com, 26 July 2017.

[3]　常见内分泌干扰物：‘Are Your Sperm in Trouble?', New York Times, 11 March 2017.

[4] 一般人壮年时所产生的精子数：Lents, Human Errors, p. 100.

[5]　35岁的女性已耗尽了自己95%的卵子库存：‘The Divorce of Coitus from Reproduction', New York Review of Books, 25 Sept. 2014.

[6]　倘若没有这种机制，出生缺陷率：Roberts, Incredible Unlikeliness of Being, p. 344.

[7]　约80%的准妈妈：‘What Causes Morning Sickness?', New York Times, 3 Aug. 2018.

[8] 唯一真正可靠的检测方法是：Oakley, Captured Womb, p. 17.

[9] 直到1886年，英国的医学生：Epstein, Get Me Out, p. 38.

[10] 有时也会被医生放血：Oakley, Captured Womb, p. 22.

[11]　1906年，估计有15万美国妇女：Sengoopta, Most Secret Quintessence of Life, pp. 16-18.

[12] 天知道我把多少女士：Cassidy, Birth, p. 60.

[13]　对病人周围的空气进行消毒：‘The Gruesome, Bloody World of Victorian Surgery', Atlantic, 22 Oct. 2017.

[14]　直到1932年，女性因生育而死的概率仍高达1/238：Oakley,

Captured Womb, p. 62.

[15] 而是青霉素的出现：Cassidy, Birth, p. 61.

[16]　美国妇女死于分娩的概率比欧洲妇女高出70%：Economist, 18 July 2015, p. 41.

[17] 最缺乏了解的人体器官：Scienti?c American, Oct. 2017, p. 38.

[18] 现代女性在分娩时：Nature, 14 July 2016, p. S6.

[19]　剖宫产出生的人：‘The Cesarean-Industrial Complex', Atlantic, Sept. 2014.

[20]　超过60%的剖宫产：‘Stemming the Global Caesarean Section Epidemic', Lancet, 13 Oct. 2018.

[21] 一出生就急于清理卫生：Blaser, Missing Microbes, p. 95.

[22]　婴儿双歧杆菌是母乳中的一种重要微生物：Yong, I Contain Multitudes, p. 130.

[23] 到一岁时，普通婴儿：New Yorker, 22 Oct. 2012, p. 33.

[24]　有证据表明，哺乳的母亲：Ben-Barak, Why Aren?t We Dead Yet', p. 68.

[25]　为了保护妇女：‘Opposition to Breast-Feeding Resolution by U.S.

Stuns World Health Of?cials', New York Times, 8 July 2018.

第十九章　神经与疼痛：大脑感觉到的疼，才是真的疼

[1]　重复上述体验，模式：‘Show Me Where It Hurts', Nature, 14 July 2016.

[2]　只有当大脑感受到疼痛时，疼痛才出现：Interview with Professor Irene Tracey, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, 18 Sept. 2018.

[3]　第一个确认痛觉感受器：Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, s.v. ‘Sherrington, Sir Charles Scott?; Nature Neuroscience, June 2010, pp. 429-430.

[4] 一半的脊髓损伤：Annals of Medicine, New Yorker, 25 Jan. 2016.

[5]　就像神经系统本身一样，疼痛：‘A Name for Their Pain', Nature, 14 July 2016; Foreman, Nation in Pain, pp. 22-24.

[6]　这个词是法语demi-craine的变体：‘Headache', American Journal of Medicine, Jan. 2018; ‘Why Migraines Strike', Scienti?c American, Aug. 2008; ‘A General Feeling of Disorder', New York Review of Books, 23 April 2015.

[7] 多纳威特，那就这样吧：Dormandy, Worst of Evils, p. 483.

[8] 但同样地……减轻疼痛：Nature Neuroscience, April 2008, p. 314.

[9] 只要有一个富有同情心和关爱的伴侣：Wolf, Body Quantum, p. vii.

[10]　疼痛的受试者就为之提供吗啡：Nature Neuroscience, April 2008, p. 314.

[11] 40%的美国成年人：Foreman, Nation in Pain, p. 3.

[12]　总的来说，受慢性疼痛影响的人：‘The Neuroscience of Pain', New Yorker, 2 July 2018.

[13] 听不见，也看不见：Daudet, In the Land of Pain, p. 15.

[14] 我们使用的药物……缓解了50%的疼痛：‘Name for Their Pain?.

[15]　据估计，1999—2014年间：Chemistry World, July 2017, p. 28; Economist, 28 Oct. 2017, p. 41; ‘Opioid Nation', New York Review of Books, 6 Dec. 2018.

[16]　阿片类药物致死提高了器官捐献的数量：‘The Disturbing Reasons Behind the Spike in Organ Donations', Washington Post, 17 April 2018.

[17]　医生得到了良好的预后效果：‘Feel the Burn', London Review of Books, 30 Sept. 1999.

[18] 即便如此，仍有59%：‘Honest Fakery', Nature, 14 July 2016.

[19] 安慰剂不会让肿瘤变小：Marchant, Cure, p. 22.

第二十章　疾病：致命性弱、传播性强的病毒才是最成功的病毒

[1]　1948年秋，冰岛北岸的小城：‘The Post-viral Syndrome: A Review', Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners, May 1987; ‘A Disease Epidemic in Iceland Simulating Poliomyelitis', American Journal of Epidemiology 2 (1950); ‘Early Outbreaks of ?Epidemic Neuromyastheniaせ', Postgraduate Medical Journal, Nov.1978; Annals of Medicine, New Yorker, 27 Nov. 1965.

[2]　但1970年，经过几年的沉寂之后：‘Epidemic Neuromyasthenia: A Syndrome or a Disease?', Journal of the American Medical Association, 13 March 1972.

[3] 西尼罗河病毒在纽约出现：Crawford, Deadly Companions, p. 18.

[4]　两百年后，一种类似的疾病：‘Two Spots and a Bubo', London Review of Books, 21 April 2005.

[5]　波旁病毒的名字来自：Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Emerging Infectious Diseases Journal, May 2015; ‘Researchers Reveal That Killer ?Bourbon Virusせ Is of the Rare Thogotovirus Genus', Science Times, 22 Feb. 2015; ‘Mysterious Virus That Killed a Farmer in Kansas Is Identi?ed', New York Times, 23 Dec. 2014.

[6]　除非医生正在做专门针对这种感染的实验室检测：‘Deadly Heartland Virus Is Much More Common Than Scientists Thought', National Public Radio, 16 Sept. 2015.

[7]　几天之内，34人死亡：‘In Philadelphia 30 Years Ago, an Eruption of Illness and Fear', New York Times, 1 Aug. 2006.

[8]　军团菌属广泛分布于土壤：‘Coping with Legionella', Public Health, 14 Nov. 2000.

[9]　阿克雷里病也出现了同样的情况：‘Early Outbreaks of ?Epidemic Neuromyastheniaせ?.

[10] 一种疾病是否会成为流行病：New Scientist, 9 May 2015, pp. 30-33.

[11] 才算是成功的病毒：‘Ebola Wars', New Yorker, 27 Oct. 2014.

[12]　鸟类和哺乳动物中有潜力跨越物种屏障感染人类的病毒数量：

‘The Next Plague Is Coming. Is America Ready?', Atlantic, July-

Aug. 2018.

[13]　一场我们永远无法恢复元气的大灾难：‘Stone Soup', New Yorker, 28 July 2014.

[14]　一名低调的厨娘兼管家：Grove, Tapeworms, Lice, and Prions, pp. 334-335; New Yorker, 26 Jan. 1935; American National Biography, s.v. ‘Mallon, Mary?.

[15] 美国每年会出现5750个病例：CDC figures.

[16]　光是20世纪，染上天花而死的人据信：‘The Awful Diseases on the Way', New York Review of Books, 9 June 2016.

[17]　其他17人：‘Bugs Without Borders', New York Review of Books, 16 Jan. 2003.

[18]　2014年，有人在：US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, ‘Media Statement on Newly Discovered Smallpox Specimens', 8 July 2014.

[19]　发给患者鹤嘴锄：‘Phrenic Crush', London Review of Books, Oct. 2003.

[20] 她和其他病友每个月只获允：MacDonald, Plague and I, p. 45.

[21]　伦敦部分行政区的感染率：‘Killer of the Poor Now Threatens the Wealthy', Financial Times, 24 March 2014.

[22] 即使是现在，唯一的治疗方法：Economist, 22 April 2017, p. 54.

[23] 比哈兹把尾蚴虫的蛹包在：Kaplan, What's Eating You', p. ix.

[24] 亨廷顿的蛋白质：Mukherjee, Gene, pp. 280-286.

[25]　至少有40个基因跟2型糖尿病相关：Nature, 17 May 2012, p. S10.

[26]　为什么温带气候：Bainbridge, Beyond the Zonules of Zinn, pp. 77-78.

[27]　这种病症被记录下来的只有大约200例：Davies, Life Unfolding, p. 197.

[28] 90%的罕见病：MIT Technology Review, Nov.-Dec. 2018, p. 44.

[29] 你最有可能死于：Lieberman, Story of the Human Body, p. 351.

[30]　仅比未接种的人低36%：‘The Ghost of Influenza Past and the Hunt for a Universal Vaccine', Nature, 8 Aug. 2018.

第二十一章　癌症：你每天都有5次得癌症的机会

[1] 白喉、天花和肺结核：Bourke, Fear, pp. 298-299.

[2] 癌症的早期历史是：Mukherjee, Emperor of All Maladies, pp. 44-45.

[3] 60岁以上的男性中有一半：Welch, Less Medicine, More Health, p. 71.

[4]　1961年，美国一项针对医生的调查：‘What to Tell Cancer Patients', Journal of the American Medical Association 175, no. 13 (1961).

[5] 大约在同一时间，英国进行的调查：Smith, Body, p. 330.

[6]　所以，癌症不是传染性的：Interview with Dr Josef Vormoor, Princess Maxima Center, Utrecht, the Netherlands, 18-19 Jan. 2019.

[7] 从出生到40岁之间：Herold, Stem Cell Wars, p. 10.

[8] 超过一半的病例：Nature, 24 March 2011, p. S16.

[9]　体重怎样让天平失去了平衡：‘The Fat Advantage', Nature, 15 Sept. 2016; ‘The Link Between Cancer and Obesity', Lancet, 14 Oct. 2017.

[10]　第一个注意到环境与癌症存在相关性的人：British Journal of Industrial Medicine, Jan. 1957, pp. 68-70; ‘Percivall Pott, Chimney Sweeps, and Cancer', Education in Chemistry, 11 March 2006.

[11]　超过80,000种商业化生产的化学品：‘Toxicology for the 21 st Century', Nature, 8 July 2009.

[12]　虽然没人能说出：‘Cancer Prevention', Nature, 24 March 2011, pp. S22-S23.

[13]　在反对甚至嘲笑声中：Armstrong, p. 53; The Gene That Cracked the Cancer Code, pp. 27-29.

[14]　据估计，病原体：‘The Awful Diseases on the Way', New York Review of Books, 9 June 2016.

[15] 有10%的男性：Timmermann, History of Lung Cancer, pp. 6-7.

[16]　有证据表明，他的妻子：Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings, Jan. 2012.

[17]　根治性乳房切除术的概念：American National Biography, s.v. ‘Halsted, William Stewart?; ‘A Very Wide and Deep Dissection', New York Review of Books, 20 Sept. 2001; Beckhard and Crane, Cancer, Cocaine, and Courage, pp. 111-112.

[18] 他丧失了大部分下巴和部分头骨：Jorgensen, Strange Glow, p. 94.

[19] 1920年，美国卖出了400万块镭表：同上，pp. 87-88.

[20] 他因为多次接受手术而严重毁容：同上，p. 123.

[21]　劳伦斯夫人的癌症得到缓解：Goodman, McElligott, and Marks, Useful Bodies, p. 81-82.

[22]　后来人们发现：American National Biography, s.v. ‘Lawrence, John Hundale?.

[23]　由此，人们认识到芥子气的某些衍生物：Armstrong, p. 53; The Gene That Cracked the Cancer Code, pp. 253-254; Nature, 12 Jan. 2017, p. 154.

[24]　突破性时刻来自1968年：‘Childhood Leukemia Was Practically Untreatable Until Don Pinkel and St. Jude Hospital Found a Cure', Smithsonian, July 2016.

[25] 有很大比例的直接死因：Nature, 30 March2017, pp. 608-609.

[26]　少了240万人：‘We?re Making Real Progress Against Cancer. But You May Not Know It if You?re Poor', Vox, 2 Feb.2018.

[27] 只有不超过2%～3%用于预防：Nature, 24 March 2011, p. S4.

第二十二章　医疗：“过度治疗”才是健康的最大杀手

[1]　不管他能从土壤肥力中学到些什么知识：‘The White Plague', New York Review of Books, 26 May 1994.

[2]　塞尔曼·瓦克斯曼被授予诺贝尔生理学或医学奖：Literary Review, Oct. 2012, pp. 47-48; Guardian, 2 Nov. 2002.

[3] 据估计，全球人均预期寿命：Economist, 29 April 2017, p. 53.

[4] 到了1900年至1912年之间的某个时期：Nature, 24 March 2011, p. 446.

[5]　一位名叫托马斯·麦基文的英国流行病学家：Wootton, Bad Medicine, pp. 270-271.

[6]　麦基文的观点招致了大量批评：American Journal of Public Health, May 2002, pp. 725-729; ‘White Plague?; Le Fanu, Rise and Fall of Modern Medicine, pp. 314-315.

[7]　格拉斯哥东部的男性：‘Between Victoria and Vauxhall', London Review of Books, 1 June 2017.

[8]　美国每出现400名中年人死亡的案例：Economist, 25 March 2017, p. 76.

[9]　在富裕国家当中，美国几乎在所有医疗健康指标上都处于或接近最差水平：‘Why America Is Losing the Health Race', New Yorker, 11 June 2014.

[10]　就连囊性纤维症患者：‘Stunning Gap: Canadians with Cystic Fibrosis Outlive Americans by a Decade', Stat, 13 March 2017.

[11]　美国人把总收入的1/5：‘The US Spends More on Health Care than Any Other Country', Washington Post, 27 Dec. 2016.

[12]　就算是富裕的美国人也无法躲开：‘Why America Is Losing the Health Race?.

[13]　美国青少年死于车祸的概率是其他同类国家的两倍：‘American Kids Are 70% More Likely to Die Before Adulthood than Kids in Other Rich Countries', Vox, 8 Jan. 2018.

[14]　戴头盔的骑手脑部受伤的概率要低70%：Insurance Institute for Highway Safety ?gures.

[15]　《纽约时报》的一项调查发现，血管造影：‘The $2.7 Trillion Medical Bill', New York Times, 1 June 2013.

[16]　医疗质量有一个公认的衡量标准：‘Health Spending', OECD Data, data.oecd.org.

[17] 160名妇科医生受邀做了评估：Jorgensen, Strange Glow, p. 298.

[18]　一个人接受过度治疗：‘The State of the Nation's Health', Dartmouth Medicine, Spring 2007.

[19]　大多数医生都以这样那样的方式接受制药公司的钱财或礼物：‘Drug Companies and Doctors: A Story of Corruption', New York Review of Books, 15 Jan. 2009.

[20]　他们只是死的时候血压数据更好看：‘When Evidence Says No but Doctors Say Yes', Atlantic, 22 Feb. 2017.

[21]　但把同样的药物用到人类身上：‘Frustrated Alzheimer's Researchers Seek Better Lab Mice', Nature, 21 Nov. 2018.

[22]　因此，对大多数人来说：‘Aspirin to Prevent a First Heart Attack or Stroke', NNT, Jan. 8, 2015, www.thennt.com.

[23]　低剂量阿司匹林完全无助于：National Institute for Health Research press release, 16 July 2018.

第二十三章　衰老和死亡：选择生活方式，就是选择死亡方式

[1] 人数，首次超过了：Nature, 2 Feb. 2012, p. 27.

[2] 美国人中，近1/3的人：Economist, 29 April 2017, p. 11.

[3]　1940年，人在56岁就达到了这一概率：‘Special Report on Aging',Economist, 8 July 2017.

[4]　就算我们明天能找到治愈所有癌症的方法：Economist, 13 Aug. 2016, p. 14.

[5]　在这方面，最生动的例子莫过于：Hay?ick interview, Nautilus, 24 Nov. 2016.

[6] 人类寿命每增加一年：Lieberman, Story of the Human Body, p. 242.

[7] 在美国，老年人的比例：Davis, Beautiful Cure, p. 139.

[8]　俄罗斯生物老年学家若列斯·梅德韦德夫：‘Rethinking Modern Theories of Ageing and Their Classification', Anthropological Review 80, no. 3 (2017).

[9]　海弗里克发现，培养的人类干细胞：‘The Disparity Between Human Cell Senescence In Vitro and Lifelong Replication In Vivo', Nature Biotechnology, 1 July 2002.

[10]　犹他大学遗传学家的一项研究发现：University of Utah Genetic Science Learning Center report, ‘Are Telomeres the Key to Aging and Cancer??

[11]　如果衰老完全是因为端粒：‘You May Have More Control over Aging than You Think . . .', Stat, 3 Jan. 2017.

[12]　我们大多数人恐怕都不会：Harman obituary, New York Times, 28 Nov. 2014.

[13]　这是个巨大的骗局：‘Myths That Will Not Die', Nature, 17 Dec. 2015; ‘No Truth to the Fountain of Youth', Scienti?c American, 29 Dec. 2008.

[14]　补充抗氧化剂并不会降低：‘The Free Radical Theory of Aging Revisited', Antioxidants and Redox Signaling 19, no. 8 (2013).

[15] 40岁以后，流向肾脏的血液量：Nuland, How We Die, p. 53.

[16]　还有两种鲸鱼也有更年期：Naked Scientists, podcast, 7 Feb. 2017.

[17] 提出了两种主要理论：Bainbridge, Middle Age, pp. 208-211.

[18] 顺便说一句，说更年期由：同上，p. 199.

[19]　纽约阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦医学院的一项研究：Scientific American, Sept. 2016, p. 58.

[20]　也是万里挑一的事：‘The Patient Talks Back', New York Review of Books, 23 Oct. 2008.

[21]　老年学研究小组：‘Keeping Track of the Oldest People in the World', Smithsonian, 8 July 2014.

[22]　哥斯达黎加人的个人财富只有美国人的1/5：Marchant, Cure, pp. 206-211.

[23] 她所患上的病，有可能根本不是：Literary Review, Aug. 2016, p. 35.

[24]　大约30%的老年人：‘Tau Protein—Not Amyloid—May Be Key Driver of Alzheimer's Symptoms', Science, 11 May 2016.

[25]　良性的生活并不能完全消除：‘Our Amazingly Plastic Brains', Wall Street Journal, 6 Feb. 2015.

[26]　在英国，痴呆症每年让国民健康服务破费：Inside Science, BBC Radio 4, 1 Dec. 2016.

[27]　针对阿尔茨海默病的药物失败率高达99.6%：Chemistry World, Aug. 2014, p. 8.

[28]　每天，全世界有16万人死亡：World Health Organization statistics.

[29] 另一项研究发现了：Journal of Palliative Medicine 17, no. 3 (2014).

[30] 大多数垂死的人：‘What It Feels Like to Die', Atlantic, 9 Sept. 2016.

[31]　终末濒死呼吸：‘The Agony of Agonal Respiration: Is the Last Gasp Necessary?', Journal f Medical Ethics, June 2002.

[32] 在生命的最后几周接受：Economist, 29 April 2017, p. 55.

[33] 一篇综述发现：Hatch, Snowball in a Blizzard, p. 7.

[34] 一个人的尸体，一看就像：Nuland, How We Die, p. 122.

[35]　有些器官的运转时间较长：‘Rotting Reactions', Chemistry World, Sept. 2016.

[36]　在密封棺材里腐烂：‘What's Your Dust Worth?', London Review of Books, 14 April 2011.

[37] 普通的墓地一般只在：Literary Review, May 2013, p. 43.

[38] 100年前，100个人里只有一个：‘What's Your Dust Worth??